Urbanization, Suburbanization, and Counterurbanization

Urbanization is the increase in the proportion of a population living in towns and cities, suburbanization is the growth of residential areas on the edges of cities, and counterurbanization is the movement of people from large cities to smaller towns and rural areas. In brief: in 2007 the world passed the point where more than half of the population lived in cities, and the United Nations expects the share to reach around two thirds by 2050. Cities in high-income countries have often moved through urbanization, suburbanization and counterurbanization, while many cities in Asia and Africa are still in the stage of rapid urbanization.

These processes change where people live, how they travel and how land is used. This guide explains the causes of urbanization, the stages of urban change, the effects on cities and countryside, compares the processes in a table, works through calculations, outlines the history and corrects common mistakes.

What is urbanization and why does it happen?

Urbanization is measured as the percentage of the population living in urban areas. It is different from urban growth, which is the increase in the number of people in cities. Cities can grow in number of inhabitants while the proportion of urban dwellers stays the same, if the total population increases at the same rate.

The two main causes are rural-to-urban migration and natural increase in cities. Migration is driven by push factors in the countryside, such as mechanization of farming, shortage of land, poverty, drought and conflict, and pull factors in the city, such as jobs, wages, schools, health care and the hope of a better life. In cities such as Lagos, Dhaka and Kinshasa, growth has been rapid and often faster than the supply of housing and services, leading to informal settlements. In high-income countries, most people already live in cities, with rates of urban population often above 75%.

What is suburbanization?

Suburbanization is the growth of residential districts on the outskirts of a city. It accelerated in the 20th century as cars, trains and roads made commuting easier, incomes rose and people wanted larger homes with gardens and a quieter environment away from congestion and pollution. Governments often encouraged it through mortgages and highway building, as in the United States after the 1940s. The effects include urban sprawl (low-density spread that consumes farmland), longer commutes, car dependence, loss of green space and declining inner-city populations and tax revenue. Many cities have since introduced green belts and planning rules to limit sprawl.

What is counterurbanization?

Counterurbanization is the net movement of people out of the largest urban areas into smaller towns, villages and rural areas, beyond the city’s commuter belt. It occurs where people can afford to move and where transport and communication allow it. Typical reasons are a desire for a better quality of life, lower housing costs, less crime and pollution, retirement and, increasingly, remote work. Effects on rural areas include population growth, new demand for services and housing, rising house prices that make it hard for local residents to afford homes, and in some cases the change of villages into commuter or second-home places.

What is reurbanization?

Some cities then experience a return of people to the center. Reurbanization involves redeveloping derelict industrial land and old city centers, creating apartments, offices and leisure facilities, and attracting young professionals and students. It is sometimes accompanied by gentrification, when richer residents move into a poor area and prices rise, which can force lower-income people out. Examples include London’s Docklands and the revival of central areas in many European and American cities.

The processes compared

Worked example: urban share and growth

1. Urbanization rate: a country of 50 million people has 30 million in urban areas. The urban share is 30 ÷ 50 = 60%.
2. Change in share: ten years later, the population is 56 million, and 38 million are urban. The new share is 38 ÷ 56 = 67.9%, an increase of 7.9 percentage points.
3. Urban growth rate: the urban population grew from 30 to 38 million, a rise of 8 million, or 8 ÷ 30 = 26.7% in ten years, which is about 2.4% per year (1.267^0.1 ≈ 1.024).
4. Doubling time: at an annual urban growth of 3.5%, the rule of 70 gives 70 ÷ 3.5 = 20 years for the urban population to double.
5. Sprawl: a city of 500,000 people with a density of 5,000 per km² covers 100 km². If the same population lived at a density of 2,500 per km², it would cover 200 km², twice as much land.
6. Commuting: a worker commuting 25 km each way, 220 days a year, travels 25 × 2 × 220 = 11,000 km a year.

How did urbanization develop?

The first cities appeared in Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus Valley and China several thousand years ago, but until the 19th century most people lived in the countryside. The Industrial Revolution drew people to factory towns in Britain, and by 1851 about half of the population of England and Wales lived in towns. Suburbs spread with railways and trams in the late 19th century and with cars after the 1920s. Since the 1970s, some cities in rich countries have lost population to smaller towns, while the main growth of cities has shifted to Asia, Africa and Latin America. Since the 2000s, more than half of humanity lives in cities.

Which mistakes are common?

Mistake 1: Confusing urbanization with urban growth

Urbanization is the rising share of people who live in cities. Urban growth is the increase in the number of urban residents.

Mistake 2: Thinking that suburbanization is the same as moving to the countryside

Suburbs are on the edge of the city and are linked to it. Counterurbanization is a move beyond the commuter belt.

Mistake 3: Assuming that all cities follow the same sequence

Cities in different countries and eras have different paths, and stages can overlap.

Mistake 4: Seeing urbanization as only a problem

Cities are centers of productivity, innovation and services, and can use land and energy more efficiently when well planned.