Enclaves, Exclaves, and Landlocked States

An enclave is a territory completely surrounded by the territory of another state, an exclave is a part of a state that is separated from the main part by the territory of another state, and a landlocked state is a country with no coastline on an ocean or sea. In brief: Lesotho is an enclave surrounded by South Africa, Kaliningrad is an exclave of Russia between Poland and Lithuania, and there are 44 landlocked countries in the world, including Switzerland, Mongolia, Ethiopia and Bolivia. Landlocked states depend on neighbors for access to the sea, which raises their transport costs and can limit trade and development.

These unusual territorial shapes show how history and politics shape the map and how geography affects economic opportunity. This guide defines the terms, explains how enclaves, exclaves and landlocked states arise, discusses their challenges and the law of access to the sea, compares the cases in a table, works through example calculations, outlines the history and corrects common mistakes.

What are enclaves and exclaves?

An enclave is a territory entirely surrounded by one other state. Examples are Lesotho, an independent state within South Africa, and San Marino and Vatican City, both inside Italy. An enclave can also be part of a state surrounded by another, such as the Spanish town of Llivia in France. A semi-enclave is surrounded by one state except for a coastline. Brunei is an example: it has a coast on the South China Sea and is otherwise surrounded by Malaysia, whose state of Sarawak splits the country into two parts.

An exclave is a part of a country that is physically separated from the main territory. Well-known examples:

• Kaliningrad Oblast (Russia), on the Baltic Sea between Poland and Lithuania, a legacy of the division of East Prussia after 1945.
• Alaska (United States), separated from the lower 48 states by Canada.
• Cabinda (Angola), separated from the rest of Angola by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and rich in oil.
• Nakhchivan (Azerbaijan), separated by Armenia.
• Ceuta and Melilla (Spain) on the north coast of Morocco, with the only land borders between Africa and the European Union.
• Baarle on the Belgian-Dutch border, a complex pattern of small exclaves and counter-enclaves.

An exclave of one state is often an enclave of another, so the terms depend on the viewpoint. Exclaves can complicate defense, administration and transport, and may become the subject of claims.

What are landlocked states?

There are 44 landlocked countries, plus some partly recognized territories. They include 16 in Africa (for example, Ethiopia, Chad, Uganda, Zambia and Mali), 14 in Europe (such as Switzerland, Austria, Hungary and Luxembourg), and others in Asia (for example, Mongolia, Nepal and Afghanistan) and in South America (Bolivia and Paraguay). Liechtenstein and Uzbekistan are “doubly landlocked,” which means that all of their neighbors are also landlocked. The United Nations recognizes 32 “landlocked developing countries,” most of which are in Africa and Central Asia.

Many states became landlocked through war or colonial partition. Bolivia lost its Pacific coast to Chile in the War of the Pacific (1879–1884), and still celebrates a “Day of the Sea.” Ethiopia lost its coastline in 1993 when Eritrea became independent, and now relies mostly on the port of Djibouti. Others, such as Austria and Hungary, lost their coasts when the Austro-Hungarian Empire broke up in 1918.

What challenges do they face?

Landlocked states are dependent on their neighbors. Goods must cross at least one border and pass through ports, roads and railways that they do not control, which causes delays, paperwork, tolls and risk of political disputes. Trade costs, particularly for imports and exports, are often much higher than for coastal countries, which reduces competitiveness and slows growth. Many landlocked developing countries rely on a few exports, such as minerals or farm products. Remoteness from major markets and weak transport links add to the problem. Climate shocks and conflict in neighbors make it worse.

However, geography is not destiny. Switzerland, Austria and Luxembourg are among the richest countries in the world, thanks to strong institutions, skilled workers, excellent transport links and high-value industries and services. Countries can reduce the disadvantages by improving transport corridors, simplifying customs, building dry ports (inland terminals linked to seaports), signing transit agreements and developing exports with a high value for their weight, such as electronics and services. Ethiopia has built a railway to Djibouti.

What rights of access exist?

The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS, 1982) gives landlocked states the right of access to and from the sea and freedom of transit through the territory of transit states (Article 125), under agreements between the states. Landlocked states also have the right to sail ships under their flag on the high seas. The details, such as fees and routes, depend on bilateral agreements, so the right of access is not unconditional. The Almaty Programme of Action (2003) and the Vienna Programme of Action (2014) set international goals for helping landlocked developing countries. Bolivia has sought a sovereign access to the Pacific, but the International Court of Justice ruled in 2018 that Chile was not obliged to negotiate it.

The cases compared

Worked example: transport costs and delays

The values are hypothetical and illustrate typical calculations.

1. Transport share of value: a coastal country spends 8% of the value of its exports on transport and insurance, while a landlocked neighbor spends 16%. For goods worth 500 million, the costs are 40 million and 80 million, so the landlocked country pays 40 million more, twice as much.
2. Time to reach a port: a truck travels 1,200 km at an average of 40 km/h, including delays, so the journey takes 30 hours on the road. Two border crossings with 12 hours of waiting each add 24 hours, and the total is 54 hours, which is 24 ÷ 54 = 44% of the time spent waiting at borders.
3. Cost per tonne: if the cost is 0.08 per tonne-km on the road and the distance to the port is 1,200 km, the transport cost is 1,200 × 0.08 = 96 per tonne. A rail link with a cost of 0.04 per tonne-km would cut this to 48, a saving of 50%.
4. Dependence on a port: if a landlocked country sends 92% of its trade through one neighboring port, and its exports and imports total 20 billion, then 20 × 0.92 = 18.4 billion passes through a single point.
5. Enclave share: Lesotho has an area of about 30,355 km², and South Africa about 1,220,000 km². Lesotho’s area is 30,355 ÷ 1,220,000 = 2.5% of South Africa’s.
6. Exclave distance: if the distance from the mainland to an exclave through foreign territory is 350 km, and a transit agreement allows 12 hours of travel without stops, the average speed is 350 ÷ 12 = 29 km/h, which shows how restrictions can slow movement.

How did these territories come about?

Most enclaves and exclaves resulted from historical accidents: feudal landholdings, dynastic marriages, wars, treaties and colonial partitions. Medieval European fragmentation left many small enclaves, such as the complicated Baarle borders, which date from the 12th century. The Cold War and decolonization created others: Kaliningrad was part of Germany until 1945, and then it became Soviet and later a Russian exclave when the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991. India and Bangladesh had about 160 enclaves along their border, which were exchanged in 2015 under an agreement, and about 50,000 residents were given a choice of citizenship. Many landlocked countries appeared with the collapse of empires or the independence of former colonies. Today, enclaves and exclaves still matter for border policy, migration and trade.

Which mistakes are common?

Mistake 1: Mixing up enclaves and exclaves

An enclave is surrounded by another state. An exclave is separated from its home state. The same territory can be both, depending on whose view is taken.

Mistake 2: Assuming that all landlocked states are poor

Switzerland, Austria and Luxembourg are rich. Their institutions, infrastructure and economies offset the lack of a coast.

Mistake 3: Thinking that landlocked states have no access rights

International law gives them a right of transit to the sea, but it must be arranged by agreements with the transit states.

Mistake 4: Believing that exclaves are always sources of conflict

Many function peacefully under transit agreements. Problems arise when relations between neighbors are tense.