Countries, Capital Cities, and National Borders

A country is a political unit with defined territory, a permanent population and a government, a capital city is the seat of that government, and a national border is the line that marks the limit of a country’s territory. In brief: the United Nations has 193 member states, and the number of countries and territories in the world depends on how disputed or dependent territories are counted. Borders are of two main kinds: natural (following rivers, mountains or coasts) and geometric (straight lines, often along lines of latitude or longitude). Countries vary enormously in size, from Russia (about 17.1 million km²) to Vatican City (about 0.44 km²).

The political map of the world is constantly changing, and understanding countries, capitals and borders is basic to current affairs, trade and history. This guide explains how countries, borders and capitals are defined, compares types of borders in a table, works through calculations of size and border length, outlines how the political map has changed and corrects common mistakes.

What is a country?

The word “country” has no single legal definition. In international law, a state usually has a permanent population, a defined territory, a government and the capacity to enter relations with other states (the Montevideo Convention, 1933). A nation is a group of people with a shared identity, language, culture or history, and a nation-state is a state whose population is mainly one nation, although few states are completely so. The UN has 193 member states plus two observer states (the Holy See and Palestine), but there are also territories that are dependent (such as Puerto Rico or Greenland), and places whose status is disputed. The countries differ greatly: by area, Russia is the largest (about 17.1 million km²), followed by Canada, China and the United States; by population, India and China have about 1.4 billion people each; and the smallest country by area is Vatican City. About 44 countries are landlocked, with no coast on an ocean, which can limit their trade.

What are national borders?

A border (boundary) is a line that separates the territory under the authority of one state from that of another. Borders are established by treaty, agreement, war or colonial decisions, and they are marked on maps, and sometimes by fences, walls and checkpoints. Physical (natural) borders follow features such as rivers (the Rio Grande), mountain ridges (the Pyrenees between France and Spain) and lakes. Geometric borders follow straight lines or lines of latitude and longitude, such as the 49th parallel between the United States and Canada, and many boundaries in Africa and the Middle East drawn by colonial powers. Cultural (human) borders follow differences of language or religion. Borders may be defined in a treaty, delimited on a map and demarcated on the ground. Disputes arise over unclear lines, resources or the claims of nations. The longest land border in the world is between Canada and the United States (about 8,900 km including Alaska).

What are capital cities?

A capital is the city where the national government is located; it is often, but not always, the largest city. There are exceptions: Canberra (Australia), Ottawa (Canada), Washington, D.C. (United States), Brasília (Brazil) and Abuja (Nigeria) are not the biggest cities in their countries. Some countries have more than one capital, with different functions, such as South Africa (Pretoria, Cape Town and Bloemfontein). Capitals can be moved or newly built: Brasília was founded in 1960, and Abuja became the capital of Nigeria in 1991. A capital may be a symbol of unity, a center of political power, and often has a concentration of institutions, population and wealth.

Border types compared

Worked example: sizes and border length

1. Largest and smallest: Russia (about 17.1 million km²) and Vatican City (about 0.44 km²). The ratio is 17,100,000 ÷ 0.44 = about 39 million, so Russia is roughly 39 million times larger.
2. Russia and the United States: 17.1 ÷ 9.83 = 1.7, so Russia is about 1.7 times the area of the United States.
3. Length of a geometric border: a border follows the 49th parallel between two meridians 10° of longitude apart. One degree of longitude at 49° N is 111.2 × cos 49° = 73 km, so the border is 10 × 73 = about 730 km long.
4. Counting states: 193 member states plus 2 observer states gives 195 states with recognition at the UN in some form; of the 193, about 44 are landlocked, which is 44 ÷ 193 = 23 percent.
5. Capitals: in Australia, Canberra (a planned capital established in 1913 as a compromise between Sydney and Melbourne) is smaller than both. A country with a capital that is not its largest city therefore shows that the location was chosen for political, not economic, reasons.

How has the political map changed?

The modern system of sovereign states is often linked to the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, though the idea of exact borders developed gradually. In the 19th century, nationalism led to the unification of Italy and Germany, and European empires divided Africa at the Berlin Conference (1884–1885), drawing many borders with little regard to local peoples. After the Second World War, decolonization greatly increased the number of states: the UN had 51 founding members in 1945 and has 193 today. The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the breakup of Yugoslavia created many new countries, and South Sudan became independent in 2011.

Which mistakes are common?

Mistake 1: Using “country”, “nation” and “state” as exact synonyms

A nation is a group of people, a state is a political unit, and “country” is used in everyday language for either.

Mistake 2: Assuming the capital is always the largest city

Many capitals, such as Canberra, Ottawa and Brasília, are not the largest cities.

Mistake 3: Thinking borders are fixed

Borders have changed through treaties, wars and independence, and some are still disputed.

Mistake 4: Assuming that borders match cultural or ethnic divisions

Many borders cut across language groups, which is a cause of conflict in some regions.